WHAT ARE PROJECTS IN TANZANIA WHICH DEAL WITH LOW CARBON DEVELOPMENT.

CLIMATE CHANGE

Refer to the increase or decrease of a certain things that lead to instability in the environment, are hazardous or cause danger to living things(organisms) life.(Jack,1990)

Climate change is constantly changing at all scale and over varying of time spans. (Waugh D. 1990)

CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION

Refers to the effort to reduce or prevent emission of green house gases, mitigation can mean using new technologies and renewable energies, making order equipment more energy efficient, or changing management practices or consumer behavior. This can be as complex as a plan for new city or as simple to cook stove design. Efforts underway around the word range from high technology sub way system to bicycling path and walkways protecting natural carbon sinks through green agriculture are also elements of mitigation. UNEP takes mitigation in its efforts to help countries move towards a low carbon society. (Eliasch, 2008)

LOW CARBON DEVELOPMENT

the concept of low carbon development has its roots in the UNFCCC adopted in Rio in1992,in the context of this convention. Low carbon development is now generally expressed using the term low-emission development strategies (LEDs also know as low-carbon development strategies or low-carbon growth plans), LEDs are general used to describe forwards looking national economic development plans or strategies that encompass low-emission or climate resilient economic growth. Robert Socolaw& Steve Pacala (1999).

PROJECTS IN TANZANIA WHICH DEAL WITH LOW CARBON DEVELOPMENT.

In Tanzania there are various projects that deal with Low Carbon Development (LCD) and general conservation of the environment in Tanzania and East Africa at large. These projects are as follows;

MAKING REDD WORK FOR COMMUNITIES AND FOREST CONSERVATION IN TANZANIA

This project is established In September 2009 by Tanzania Forest Conservation Group (TFCG).TFCG initiated a partnership project that aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and degradation in Tanzania in ways that provide direct and equitable incentives to communities to conserve and manage forests sustainably.

Rationale for the project

Tanzania has been a world leader in the development of participatory forest management.  In Tanzania, forests under participatory forest management are generally better managed with lower rates of deforestation and forest degradation.   Forests are better managed when the women and men who live around them, are involved in their management.

In order for participatory forest management to be sustainable and equitable, tangible benefits need to accrue directly to the communities that are managing them. 

In reducing emissions of green house gases from deforestation and forest degradation communities are providing a valuable service to the global community.  REDD offers an opportunity for communities to be recompensed for that service.  The aim of this project is to demonstrate how this can be done in an equitable, effective and efficient way.

Establishing a Community Carbon Enterprise

The project will support MJUMITA the Tanzania Community Forest Conservation Network to aggregate voluntary emission reductions from its members and sell them according to internationally recognized standards.   

The project includes an evaluation and communication component designed to capture the lessons learnt in order to inform project implementation and share them with the national and international community.  The project also focuses on building in-country capacity with regards to REDD at both local and national governmental levels. This is linked with a strategic advocacy component aimed at forging a smooth path for REDD in Tanzania by engaging in the formulation of the national REDD strategy and processes at national and international level.

Where the project is found

The project implemented in Kilosa and Lindi rural Districts in Tanzania. Lindi Rural District is in coastal Tanzania and includes parts of the Eastern African coastal forest biodiversity hotspot. Kilosa District is in the Eastern Arc Mountains, part of the Eastern Afromontane biodiversity hotspot.

The project is a five year project which was launched in September 2009.

The project is financed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Government of Norway.

 DODOMA ENVIRONMENTAL NETWORK (DONET)

Dodoma Environmental Network(DONET). This is the voluntary membership based non-governmental organization formed by individual members, umbrella environmental networks and interest organizations. The History of the Dodoma Environmental Network (DONET) goes back to 1994 when a group of people with keen interest on environmental conservation decided to establish DONET. The organization becomes registered in 1995 under the Ministry of Home Affairs as a voluntary, non-profit membership based organization with registration number SO. 8304 and in 2006 the organization complied with the new NGOs Act of. 2002 with certificate of registration No.1609

DONET's aim is to sensitize, educate and liaise with individual people, organizations, institutions community groups, government institutions and non-governmental organizations in the conservation of the environment and in ensuring sustainable management of natural resources of Tanzania in general through coordinated community plans of environmental management and conservation.

DONET works on environmental and development issues that cut across different sectors. The interested issues of work intervened into the Strategic plan including Climate Change and Carbon Sequestration, Kilimo Kwanza and the Environment, Environmental Conservation and Education, Environmental Friendly IGA’s and Technology and Mining, Oil and Gas Exploration.

These areas include:

• Conservation agriculture
• Access to renewable energy technologies
• Carbon Sequestration and Biodiversity Conservation
• Improved Practices and Technologies on Environmental Conservation
• Food Security and
• Access to Clean Water

MANAGING DEFORESTATION IN SOUTH –EASTERN TANZANIA(MDSET)

Carbon Tanzania has partnered with a group of leading organizations and research institutions in a four-year pilot initiative. The project, which is funded by the Norwegian Government’s Climate Forestry Initiative to the tune of over $1.9 million from 2010-2013, is led by the Mpingo Conservation Development Initiative (MCDI).

MCDI has been working in Kilwa since 2004 to facilitate establishment of Village Land Forest Reserves and development of methods for sustainable harvesting of high-value timber species in communally managed forests. This will enable villages to capture premium prices for sustainably harvested timber species such as Mpingo in their communal forest reserves.

A central element of this project will be integrating new forms of income captured through global carbon markets established under REDD (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) with existing community-based forest management and forestry certification schemes.

The project helps in reducing the emission of carbon by encouraging the villagers to plant many trees in their forest and rural communities will manage their forests, helping to alleviate poverty and ensuring that ongoing support costs can be covered. 

The project aims to improve forest management and fire management. These offsets will be generated based on the highest scientific standards and will be validated and verified under the Verified Carbon Standard (VCS) and the Climate, Community, and Biodiversity Alliance (CCB) Standards. Carbon Tanzania will be responsible for marketing these offsets on both local and global markets and capturing the best possible price for local producers.

NATIONAL CLEANER PRODUCTION CENTER (NCPC)

In Tanzania, the NCPC was established in 1995 under joint UNIDO-UNEP funding and continued its work from 1999 to 2005 with the financial support of the Government of Norway. In 2005, the Centre was legally established as a non-profit trust, with the aim of providing services in cleaner production, sustainable consumption, environmental and energy management to both the public and private sectors, with a particular emphasis on small and medium-sized enterprises. To date, the Centre is active in industrial sectors such as textiles, food, chemicals, beverage, leather, pulp and paper.

Since its establishment, the NCPC has:

• Conducted 17 training sessions, trained 361 national experts on cleaner production. Organized 53 seminars, workshops and other awareness raising activities for more than1, 500 representatives from key stakeholder groups including governmental, non-governmental and private organizations.
• Provided assistance to 43 companies and trained 189 company experts
• At enterprise level, contributed to improved working conditions and safety, decreased pollution output, more efficient use of resources, and improved product quality

The NCPC has successfully achieved its own legal status, with the aim of promoting cleaner production nationally and providing services that meet industry’s demands and requirements. As the Executive Secretariat for the African Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and Production (ARSCP), the Centre has also taken on a key role in promoting regional cooperation and experience sharing. Overall, the UNIDO-UNEP National Cleaner Production Centers and programs have been established in 47 countries. In 2009, the partners agreed to expand and scale up the global networking activities of the NCPCs.

TANZANIA FOREST CONSERVATION GROUP (TFCG)

The Tanzania Forest Conservation Group is a Tanzanian non-governmental organization with 25 years of experience of forest conservation in Tanzania. TFCG’s mission is to conserve and restore the biodiversity of globally important forests in Tanzania for the benefit of the present and future generations of Tanzanians. Through TFCG’s five programmes: advocacy, participatory forest management, environmental education, community development and research, TFCG has succeeded in rolling out innovative and high-impact solutions to the challenges facing Tanzania’s forests and the people that depend on them. Suggested citation: TFCG (2009).

MJUMITA is a national network of community groups involved in participatory forest management. The network provides a forum for capacity building, advocacy and communication for these groups. MJUMITA currently has 75 affiliated local area networks, which are made up of Village Natural Resource Committees (VNRC) and Environmental User Groups. MJUMITA’s members are present in 23 districts, 318 villages and representing around 500 user groups or VNRCs involved in participatory forest management across Tanzania. MJUMITA has been operational since 2000 and was officially registered as an independent NGO in 2007. 

THE LOW CARBON DEVELOPMENT WORKSHOP

Tanzania Electric Supply Company Limited (TANESCO) is parastatal organaisation under the ministry of energy and minerals(MEM) established in 1964. The company s core business is generation transmission and distribution of power.

TANESCO has been a victim of climate change where facing the problem of insufficient water for power generation in various dams like kidatu and mtera especially in year 2009/2010.

The national climate strategy present on opportunity to address climate change, adaptation and participate in the global effort to reduce GHGs emission in the context of sustainable development

TANESCO adapted to energy mix (hydro, gas, geothermal, solar, wind, and coal) to avoid vulnerability to climate change.

In collaboration with rural energy agency has promoted rural electrification using in grid and off grid .Cost of clean hampers rapid expansion and use of low carbon technologies

TANESCO’s and energy sector success is contributed by among others public funding as well as support of the private investor under PPP and IPP.

Reiterate Tanzania’s commitment to address climate change. The country is amongst the highly vulnerable group of the countries that are affected by the climate change.

The company fights to improve the energy availability to reduce the deforestation, land degradation and emission of carbon that is harmful to human and other organisms.

The company now established the project of supplying the power in rural area (MPANGO WA UMEME VIJIJINI 2013. 


KILIMANJARO ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT TRUST FUND.

This projects deals with conserving environment in Kilimanjaro specifically, whereby the mountain is a source of income to the Tanzania government. Through conservation of environment the reduction of carbon in the environment achieved well.

Mount Kilimanjaro is a Biosphere reserve and a World Heritage Site. For generations it has been a major source of the sweet drinking water, traditional small holder irrigation and power generation for the National Grid. The Pangani Water Basin Development System also depends on water from Kilimanjaro's rivers and springs as a major source. Acting as the major climate modifier of the weather in her neighbourhood, the mountain has attracted many visitors for various reasons including tourism and has therefore become an important source of foreign earnings for the Nation. Between 1989/90 and 1996/97 we have had an influx of between 10,000 and 13,000 tourists annually.

Apart from Mt Kilimanjaro, there are the sister Pare Mountains which are characterized as the Eastern Arc Mountains; these mountainss are truly ancient over geoligical time and compared with them, mountains such as Kilimanjaro are young. These are very old and have had a very stable climate; this has led to them having a high diversity of species in terms of flora and fauna. In the Pare Mountains there are a number of forest reserves particularly for Soil Conservation and Catchment Values.
These Mountains are among the 25 most important "biodiversity hotspots" in the world for the conservation of animals and plants. The "Hotspot" analysis recognises concentrations of species and high level of threats.GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES ON LOW CARBON DEVELOPMENT IN TANZANIA

Tanzania low carbon development capacity building program (underway) is linked to the global UNDP program on LEDs where a number of countries are involved and responds of UNFCCC.

The following are the initiatives;

1. FOREST MANAGEMENT AND PROTECTION’

Even though Tanzania have a very small carbon footprint, the country need to build a low carbon through forest management and protection. This include the agriculture and energy sectors. Tanzania planned to have a good management in forestry where there are some laws and policies of forest management that are used in implementing the forest management. Example “KATA MTI PANDA MTI”.

Also adopting of new farming technology so as to avoid using of pastures that increase the carbon in the atmosphere.

Afforestation in various places and high degree of protection on forest and agriculture areas also helps to reduce emission of carbon significantly. Tanzania is in a good position of benefiting from emerging, reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD).Simon. I. G. (1991)

2. SWITCHING TO MODERN FUEL IN THE HOUSEHOLD SECTOR

Due to forecast demand growth switching to modern fuel such as LPS is an important part of the solution for safeguarding forests, and reducing co-benefits include cleaner, modern energy for cooking particularly for a growing urban population. Tanzania have tries their best to use environmental friend fuel to avoid high emission of carbon in the atmosphere. Instead of concentrating much in the use of charcoal, fire wood and coal Tanzania nowadays also we use the rigidified petroleum gas.

3. RENEWABLE GENERATION

Tanzania has long invested in renewable generation through the development of hydro, generation. There is now the potential to assess opportunities for other renewable source of energy including wind, solar and geothermal. However investors will need to be incentivized through the tariff structure and be able to effectively use the carbon financing mechanisms. Promotion of solar home systems is already being developed. Mitigating the problems of affordability will be key to seeing this technology disseminated widely in rural areas. All these helps in protecting the environment from carbon emission.

4. IMPROVED PRODUCTION AND USE OF BIOMASS ENERGY TO SAFEGUARD FOREST RESOURCES

Linked to REDD funding, the economy wide benefits of such a move could be significant. It would also have strong co-benefits such as reducing health impacts to households, saving fuel costs, developing the local manufacturing economy and safeguarding biodiversity and associated forest industries. The use of biomass fuels and bio based fuel produce can reduce oil and gas import and improve environment quality. Biomass can offset fossil fuel such as goal, natural gases, gasoline, diesel oil and fuel oil.

At the same time, it’s use can enhance and foresting new industries making bio based products. Some energy can be met by solar, wind, wood and biomass present are viable short and midterm solution. All these helps in reducing the emission of GHGs.

Tanzania today have also invested in the use of biomass as a source of fuel mostly at domestic level.

5. DESTOCKING

By reducing the high number of cattle which enteric fermentation which increase the amount of methane in the atmosphere by distributing the number of cattle in different areas so that to avoid the high concentration of manua decompose and become the source of methane gas. For example beef cattle account for about 70% of methane gas and dairy cattle account for about 25% of those methane emission. The reduction of these cattle also helps in mitigation in reducing emission of methane gas in the atmosphere. This project of reducing cattle in Tanzania is mostly practiced in Dodoma.

CHALENGES OF IMPLIMANTING EXISTING STRATEGIES IN TANZANIA

• Inadequate funding for activities at both local and national level. the planned project lack the financial support from the government in implementing the strategies
• Lack of specific national climate change policy in the country. The government failed to formulate an appropriate and effective policy in the country towards climate change
• Inadequate awareness of climate change issues (lack of education)
• Inadequate technologies in implementing some of the projects. this is due to the fact that some projects requires high technologies for example carbon capture and geological storage project
• Excessive Poverty in some of Tanzanian villages which leads them to depend much on natural resources which lead to further destruction
• Shortage of alternative source of energy for example wind energy and gases
• Remoteness of some areas which make difficulty in reaching them for education to the local community concerning with environment conservation
• Culture and customs of local community which may be harmful to the environment, example some tribes practices in burning the grasses and trees during summer season for hunting benefit, defense from dangerous animals and for pastoralism advantage, where they believe that the new grasses will grow during the winter season.
• Population increase in local community which makes more requirements on resources to meet the present number of people. (Simon, I. (1991)

CONCLUSION

Low carbon development strategies(LCDs) should be a catalyst to forest sustainable development in developing countries where people should encouraged to plant trees and conserve the environment by establishing the small groups of environments conservation and insure that there is enough security in those area that are surrounded by the forest.

Developed countries should assist developing countries in preparation and implementation of LCDs by funding them and training the environment conservation and preservation expertise, this will lead the developing country to reach the aim of reducing emission of carbon and lowering the harmful carbon that exist in the atmosphere. Awareness creation and capacity building should be a part and parcel of LCDs adoption process.

REFERENCES

BRAY, D& BARRY, D.( 2010) .Sustainable Forest Management as a Strategy to Combat Climate Change: Lessons from Mexican Communities. Consejo Civil Mexicano para la Silvicultura Sostenible (CCMSS), Rights and Resources.

Eliasch, J. (2008).Climate Change: Financing Global Forests: The Stationery Office Limited (UK).

Manyika, F.(2014). Paper presentation at the kick- off workshop on low carbon development (LCD) in Tanzania.

Oxford dictionary (2008) oxford learners New York and sons limited, Hong Kong

Stewart, J. (2008).Forest management solution for mitigation climate change. United state of America

Waugh, D. (1990). Geography an Integrated approach: United Kingdom

Suggested citation: TFCG 2009. Making REDD work for people and forests in Tanzania. Lessons learnt from participatory forest management in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam

Simon, I. (1991). Earth, Air and Water: Resources and Environment in the Late 20^th Century. Arnold, Seven oaks.

Willium,M. (1918). Environmental science: Ashford university. New York Sanfransisco

Robert ,S. (1999). Environmental conservation. Princeton university. New York

HOW PLOT IS SHOWN IN THE PLAY OF THIS TIME TOMORROW

PLOT 

Is a literary term defined as the events that make up a story, particularly as they relate to one another in a pattern, in a sequence, through cause and effect, how the reader views the story, or simply by coincidence.(Obstfeld, 2002) 

Plot is the deliberately sequence organized and arrangement of scenes and episodes so as to yield logical flow of events in Drama.It is a literary term that is used to describe the events that make up a story or the main part of the story, these events relate to each other in a pattern or sequence.

There are two types of plot which are simple plot and double plot whereby simple plot is the plot in which a straight forward situation is presented without complication means direct chain of events. Whereas double plot is the plot whereby two stories or more precede together throught out the play where one is major and other sub plot.( Polkaing,1990) 

CONFLICT

Conflict is what makes up the story, it refers to the misunderstanding, clashes, quarrels between people due to some differences in interest or ideas, conflict can lead into negative changes such as disunity, enmity and underdevelopment. It can also lead to positive changes like nature of treatment examples the government.(Nikolajeva,2005) .see more

Is an inherent incompatibility between the objectives of two or more characters or forces. Conflict creates tension and interest in a story by adding doubt as to the outcome.

1. HOW PLOT IS SHOWN IN THE PLAY OF THIS TIME TOMORROW

In the play of “This Time Tomorrow” written by Ngugi Wathiong’o in 1970, at Uhuru Market in Kenya, the plot used is simple plot as the event are straight forward and presented without complication. The play also is a three act play whereby it has exposition, turning point and resolution.

The play starts in act one the exposition were the Journalist is seen writing an article about the life after independence in Kenya where the freedom fighters are seen to have hopes that after getting independence they should get jobs, land and a better life. But after independence tings change the new government of their fellow black leaders betrays the masses especially the freedom fighters such as Njango’s husband, Stranger, Shoe maker and others. The minorities took the opportunity and begin to enjoy the national cake and those who fought for freedom like the shoe maker and Stranger are left to suffer and hence living a poor life. The Shoe maker is earning his living by repairing shoes and stays in the slums, we also see the family of heroes who died in the forest like Njango and her daughter Wanjiro suffer terribly. They are living in the slums and engage in petty business of selling soup so as to be able to survive. The playwright goes on showing the living condition of the people in shanty town or slums. The people in the slums at Uhuru market are in poor condition, the environment is filthy and the government has forgotten them despite the important role they played in fighting for Uhuru.

In the act two which is a turning point the government wants to demolish or destroy the slums were they say that the place is dirty and looks filthy in the eyes of the visitors who came from metropolitan countries such as America. Inspector Kiongo is heard saying “Clean the City Campaign Starts, by twelve o’clock today this slums must be demolished. They are great shame on our city tourist from America, Britain and West Germany is disgusted”. The playwright continue to show that the government goes on with the move to demolish the slums without show the slum dwellers were to go to settle Kiongo says that “this is Inspector Kiongo of the city council health department. I remind all those that dwell in this place that today was the date I gave your last delegation. A month is now over” at the same time the dwellers are sitting in gathering trying to figure what to do so as their slums will not be demolished. Stranger organizes meetings with the slum dwellers and start to organize demonstration whereby it becomes that no one is able to fight against the city council, the Shoe maker says “it is not that I don’t want to move, but the government should give me the place to go”, in the same act things between Njango and her daughter Wanjiro are not in a good state as Wanjiro is tired of the slums and the poor living condition she wants better life, she wants to dress decently like other rich girls she is in conflict with her mother and also has an intrapersonal conflict also the city is full of people who cheat other people especially young men cheating girls and abandoning them and later they throw them in the trenches and live them to die like animals. In the slums there are informal activities like food vending such as selling soup by Njango’s and Wanjiro as they heard saying “soup for twenty cents. Soup to build bones” making jembes and pangas by tinsmith and repairing shoes by the Shoe maker. Unemployment and poor living caused by poverty like that of Njango and her daughter Wanjiro are sharing the floor as bed. And also Wanjiro is seen having an affair with a man called Asinjo, Asinjo advices Wanjiro to come with him in the city and leave her mother in the slums she is in hesitations as she says;

Wanjiro: Oh Asinjo! I would like that very much. But my mother!

Asinjo: “My mother! My mother! You are not a child any longer. You can’t let an old woman go on shutting you away from the good things of life…….” (pg 45)

All this happens because Njango the mother of Wanjiro do not want Asinjo to marry her daughter because of his tribe so the only way Asinjo thinks of having Wanjiro is to take her without the approval of her mother.

The playwright shows us of resolution this is seen in demolition of the slums despite the protest staged by the slum dwellers the government goes on with plan to demolish the shanty houses. It sends the police and bulldozers to pull down the shanty houses at Uhuru market. The Stranger is protesting the demolition of slums he tells the crowd who are the slum dwellers that “we want our homes, we love them. Unless the City Council shows us another place to go, where we can earn our bread we shall not lift a finger to demolish our homes! I go further, we must defend our own!” (pg 47), the Police officer gives order for Stranger to be arrested Police officer says; “Come! Take him away. Men!” the Stranger is arrested and set to detention camp that is shot dead, because he was trying to explain how they struggled for independence. Back to Njango and Wanjiro, Wanjiro is approaching her mother and tell her she is going away with Asinjo with becomes very hard for Njango to accept and they start quarrelling but despites of everything Wanjiro leaves and left her mother alone. Wanjiro says; “I am old enough to look after myself. I am going now. Asinjo is waiting for me. Goodbye mother” after Wanjiro left Kiongo enters but Njango does not hear him, he tells her to hurry up as the slums are demolished and he goes out still shouting orders, then we hear Njango lamenting in disillusionment “they are heading us out like cattle where shall I go now, tonight? Where shall I be, this time tomorrow? If only we had stood up against them! If only we could stand together!” the government has shown brutality against the people by implementing the discussion so fast without giving time to people to organize themselves so that they can move comfortably, the playwright tell us that “ then bulldozer whine to crescendo, and resultant crash as hut is pushed down. Then silence”.

2. CONFLICTS BETWEEN THE MAIN CHARACTERS IN THE PLAY

In this play “This Time Tomorrow” conflict has been depicted or portrayed through various characters who take actions which has made the play to take three plot stages

Conflict between the Youths and the Elders

There is a misunderstanding between the young people who after the modern life and people like Njango who are still conservative. The differences in interests’ leads to misunderstanding, for example Njango dislikes dressing like white people while her daughter does. Another conflict that rises among Wanjiro and Njango is about school, clothes and bad language used by Wanjiro to her mother. Wanjiro tells her mother; “mother you mock me with your talk of clothes and school, where is my brother? You sent him to my uncle so that he might attend school, where are the clothes that you buy me?”

Another conflict occurs when Wanjiro tells her mother that she wants to marry Asinjo, a man from another tribe this annoys her and Wanjiro is not happy for her mother for preventing her, also Asinjo and Njango, Asinjo wants to marry Wanjiro but Njango refuses this and chase him away with her wild tongue. Njango tells her daughter; “A man from another tribe? Do you know what men of the city are, have you not heard o women left in the gutter? Women stabbed and left to die in the streets?”

Conflict between the Slum Dwellers and the City Council

The Slum Dwellers and the City Council are in conflict because of differences in their interests and make misunderstanding. The Slum Dwellers want to stay in the slum while the city council wants the slum to be demolished so as to clean the city. The slum dwellers are saying “I didn’t know they were so determined to punish us, they cannot destroy our homes” and Kiongo from city council says that “Clean the City, Campaign begins today”

Conflict between the Police Officers and the Stranger.

The police are in bad term with the stranger because he makes people to be involved violence and civil disobedience. Hence the police officer arrest him by saying in the name of our new Republic, you are arrested.The Stranger was organizing people to demonstrate the demolishing of the slums he says “we want our homes, we love them. Unless the City Council shows us another place to go, where we can earn our bread we shall not lift a finger to demolish our homes! I go further, we must defend our own!” (pg 47), and the police officer arrests him.

Intra – Personal conflict (Inner- Person conflict)

Wanjiro is unhappy with the state of not going to school while her brother has gone. She is also unhappy with the poor life in the slums, whereby she does not have good clothes unlike other girls in the city. She wants to be with Asinjo but her mother is preventing her. So poverty in the slums makes Wanjiro hate living there and she wants to move from that place. And at the end o act three she decides and leave with Asinjo as she tell her mother ““I am old enough to look after myself. I am going now. Asinjo is waiting for me. Goodbye mother” and she left.

2. MAIN DRAMATIC FUNCTIONS OF DIALOGUE.

Dialogue is the conversation between the characters as they talk to one another in a drama. Dialogue contains the main dramatic functions as follow;

a) Dialogue in drama helps to reveal character;

In this dramatic function through the dialogue the character can reveal or show how she or he behaves from other character. Example; from the play “This Time Tomorrow” Wanjiro reveals herself as a person who admires western and modern way of dressing as in the following dialogue ;

“Wanjiro; two days ago I saw a dress in the city I wanted it, so much, I almost stole it.

Njango; you want to dress like white people?

Wanjiro; black people wear clothes like those I saw.”

b) Dialogue in drama used to convey information

In this function dialogue between different characters can be used to deliver and convey the intended information. Example; The information from the government about the demolition of slums as in the following dialogue in page 44 between Kiongo and Njango

“Kiongo; Clean the city campaign starts today at twelve o’clock, the police will act. Show the harambee spirit, and move!

Njango; I never Heard such cheek. Show the harambee spirit by destroying our home?

Also dialogue used to convey information about unity as in the following dialogue in page 47

Stanger; but there is magic! The magic is within you. The witchcraft with which to blind the city is within our heart, in our hands. Let us stand together let us with one voice tell the new government; we want our homes, we love our home, we shall not lift a finger to demolish our home.

Crowd; Long live Uhuru market! Long live Uhuru market.

c) Dialogue in drama helps to clarify conflicts

In this function we can analyze different conflicts aroused in the play between different characters through their dialogue made. Example; conflict between Njango and Wanjiro when Njango tried to wake up Wanjiro as in the following dialogue in page 32 to 33

“Njango; wake up! Wake up. I tell you! What a heavy load of fresh

Wanjiro; what! What water? Who is talking of water? Water everywhere. Floods and floods that destroy and washed away the slums.

Njango; you dwell in dreams. When will you wake up?”

1. Dialogue in drama helps to complicate conflicts;

In this we can identify how the conflicts become more serious between different characters. The misunderstanding still goes up. Example when Wanjiro confronted as well as her mother as in the dialogue at page 36

Wanjiro: you always silence me with such talk. That is how you persuade me to forget Asinjo. I never asked to be born.

Njango; and your father would help. Just sat there with other men from the ridge, taking snuff and talking about the stolen land.

2. Dialogue in drama helps to promote action

In this function we can analyse how dialogue can produce or culminate to action such as fights or other activities. Example the dialogue between the police and the society which by the end lead to demolition of the slums as in page 48

‘Police officer: friends!

Crowd; run! Run! Run! Quickly!

Out of my way police are coming.’

REFFERENCES

Foster-Harris (1960). The Basic Formulas of Fiction. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press

Thiong’o, G. (2007).This time tomorrow. Nairobi. Kenya literature Bureau.

Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 8^th Edition(2010). Oxford university press.

Obstfeld, R. (2002). Fiction First Aid: Instant Remedies for Novels, Stories and Scripts. Cincinnati, OH: Writer’s Digest Books

Polkaing, K. (1990). Writing A to Z. Cincinnati, OH: Writer’s Digest Books. 

Nikolajeva, Maria (12 May 2005). Aesthetic Approaches to Children’s Literature: An Introduction. Scarecrow

analyis Annals interpretation of history with example.

Annals (Latin name, year from annuls, a year) are concise form of historical interpretation which record events clonologically year by year.
Oxford dictionary define annals as a narrative of events written year by year.
Annales school of thought and historiography are the group of historians associated with a kind of style of producing historical knowledge which is different from ancients, medieval and contemporary historians. It was first emerged in French 20th century specifically 1929. The history written by these historians was also known as “the history of new generation” they rejected the history written by past historian such as Alexander and Caesar, Gengis khan, and Napoleon who wrote history about; political and military history, Concentration of analysis of short period and narrative style of events. Their death led to the changes of history into a larger and more humanitarian by its rejection of predominant conception of writing history. The changes of history associated with several movements.
Peter Burke has divided the movement into three phases.
1st PHASE (1920-1945)
The movement was very radical and strong opposes the traditional political history, the initiator were Marc Bloch and Lucian Febvre.
2nd PHASE (1945-1968)
The movement became a school of thought with its main concept( conjucture-structure)and method. History of changes over the long term. The initiators were Fernand Braudel and Ernst Labrouse.
3rd PHASE (1968-1989)
The school became more fragmented and shift from the social economic to the social cultural. The initiators were Ariel, Bourdieu, Goffman. The movement led to the introduction of school originated from journal called Annales and historie Economique et sociale. The annals of economic of society which was the platform of the annals school of thought where they published their work/research which was written in French language and translated in English language. In this journal there are features of the annals which published in different books and monographs also published their works through lecture in various universities in French and America.(Spickard,1998)

THE ANNALS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION OF HISTORY
The annals school of historiography employed social scientific methods by focusing mostly the social administration of the societies rather than on political and diplomatic dimensions that had become common historiography (Spickard,1998)

Annales wrote history which have been highly dynamic in the sense that it changes the modification by either shifting the area of emphasis. They started looking different phenomenon occurred in the societies at different time and their underlying causes.(Braudel,1981)

Annals interpretation of history interpreted history that based on the fields like geography, anthropology, sociology, economics and psychology. This historiography is highly interdisciplinary in the course of producing historical literature the school cuts across the boundaries of various discipline that means the school employs sources from various field.(Traian,1976)

Annals Interpretation of history focused on total history. It concentrated on every activity done in the society day to day throughout the year. For them everything must be recaptured and relocated in the general frame work of history, so that despite the difficulties, the fundamental paradoxes and contradictions we may respect the unity of history which is also the unity of life. (Braudel,1981)

Annals wrote history focused on climate history. They have tried to trace over a long period of time the changes that have been occurring in climate of an area and they found these aspects are very importance in the social and economic interest of people. It sharpen how people behave hence determine history. (Spickard,1998)

Annals interpretation of history avoided political chronological and individual based history. Traditional historians arrange events in chronological period what they care is just the event happened but for the annals put aside the aspect of political and based with other aspects and they were against individual history and they focused on the entire societies.(Braudel,1981)
Annals interpretation of history were hostile to the class analysis of Marxist historiography that had dominated the historical scholarship since 19th century. A shift from Marxist interpretation of history to a new method of producing historical knowledge that referred to the history based on human activities rather than on problem oriented and analytic history.(Traian,1976)
The annals interpretation of history focused on the long term history they wanted to look for period of long time. Example the Braudel and his doctorate of “master work” took more than two decade to write and not about personal or event but it was about Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in age of Philip (1949) embodied the three tired approach. (Braudel,1981)
Annals interpretation of history was also based on the roles of environment which comprises the mountains, plains, oceans and season and how they shape human habitation. (La Capra,1982)
Annal interpretation of history criticized positivism which narrated on the analysis of short periods adopted a traditional narrative of events and analyzed history almost exclusively from the political military point of view and rebelled against empirical history which focused on politics great individual and chronological events(Spickard,1998)
Annales historians continue to critique some of the history’s earlier schools of thought, claiming that events cannot be explained using reference points and cultural back ground of the time because the exact mind frame of those involved cannot be known for certain, only speculated upon. (Braudel,1981)
Annals interpretation of history tries to show the role of Mediterranean in the civilization of the world. Braudel say that the civilization of the world begins in Mediterranean seabed itself the layers of clay, sand and limestone from which the Egyptians carved their tombs and built their temples, Greeks, Romans and Mesopotamia was shaped by the Mediterranean. (Spickard,1998)
Annales interpretation of history studied what they called collective illusion and pointed the possible causes of such phenomenon. In the Royal Touch they looked at the belief that the king’s touch could cure people from diseases. They compared France and England on long term scale and analyzed how such collective illusion survived after the middle ages. Their aim was to problematize the fact that people believed such improbable things for a prolonged period in time and to point to possible causes of such phenomenon.(Traian,1976)
Annales interpretation of history interpreted history of their own time rather than earlier periods. Example Bloch attacks the idol of origins arguing that historical phenomena ought to be explained in terms of their own time, rather than of earlier periods.(Bloch, 1961)
Some of the annales divided their object of study into three aspects which are material civilization where production takes place immobile, Economic life the place of trade and distribution, Capitalist mechanism the realm of consumption, where change is more rapid.(Spickard,1998)
Annales school rejected dominance of Leopold Von Ranke’s scientific nationalist method engaged with Marxist historians in their shared interest in structure but gave greater emphasis to geography rather than economics.(Braudel,1981)
Annals history has turned to a broader range of topic and now confers dignity less selective everything has now become historical, histories now diverge from presenting humanity with the notion of it is own superiority and the ineluctability of mankind progress. (Braudel,1981)
Weakness of annals interpretation of history

  Can be per-iodized and therefore be made historically fashionable or not depending on the time we find ourselves in, contemporary scholars like Iggers and Hunt have insisted on reducing the annales historian’s revolutionary ideas to proper definable school.
 Mentalities represented the unconscious patterns that guided the actions of individuals. Annals historian focused on the entire society and not individuals done in the past.
 Annals isolated political and diplomatic history and favor mostly social, economic and cultural history.

 Annales ceased being a national interpreter and explores the secrets of societies rather than the secrets of nations more than a journal and less than a doctrine.
Annals historians of the school could not separate themselves from rival methodologies that mean they were opposing application of methodology on write history.

 Annals historian wrote history of everyday activities in the society. This was impossible for the historian to write every activity in the society which may lead to confusion.
Conclusion

The Annales historiographer have believed that past events process, causes and purposes can hardly be known absolute such that the Annales have doubted in the past. Once there was a saying that “event are only event only if they are selected by historian, if they are not selected by historian they remain non-historical”. Hence there a lot of past that are not yet known.

Refraction

Refraction:
It refers to bending of light when it passes from one medium to another. These media are of different densities and the speed of EMR is different in each.Frequency remains constant. Velocity changes as a result of wavelength change.

               Index of Refraction:
                         n = c / v
c : the speed of light in a vacuum,
         3 x 108  m/sec
v : speed of light in the medium.
n : medium's index of refraction

induce of refraction:
Vacuum            1.00
Air                1.0003
Water            1.33
Ethanol            1.36
Crown glass    1.52
Quartz            1.52
Diamond        2.42

note:
This index is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a substance
     (3 x 108 )m/s

ROLES OF MASS MEDIA ON ADRESSING EFFECTS OF CLIMATIC CHANGE

Global warming effects, are being felt in most part of Africa with the great impact on tourists sites including Tanzania wildlife parks and Mount Kilimanjaro ecosystems, standing freely and majestically with its snow griming in the sun , mount Kilimanjaro is in great danger of loosing its its eye catching glaciers. In recently decades Kilimanjaro glaciers had progressive shrink as climate change effects cause the mountain snow to melt.(Daily News, March 17 2013) reported by Mjingo (2013,P.29)

El-Nino rains in 1998 reflected the most coverage in Tanzania and East were published in several in several news papers including the Daily News  8 May, 1998, The Guardian there East African and the popular Kiswahili newspapers such as Mwananchi
Permanent Drought
  
The effects of change of temperature, pressure , precipitation, humidity clouds  cover and wid direction caused deaths in masses of wildlife in key tourists sites as journalists and other media professional failed to tell their readers in details about the climate change.
Natural disasters and Malaria outbreak in North part of Tnzania (Arusha and Kilimanjaro) were reported while tourists sites were experienced hing temperature as the results  of climatic changes.

 The Impacts of climate change in Tanzania is also seen with Islands because of the rise of the sea levels, periodic flooding and in other areas with decreasing water rivers in lakes and rivers. In Tanzania example tourist Hotel on the Indian ocean beaches in Dar es salaam, Hotel African was totally  sub-merged due to the raising level on the Indian ocean water.Kunduchi beach Hotel
Climate change pose significant throat to the tourism sector, Mount Kilimanjaro to Africans tallest mountain remain the only worldly published tourist hot sport on the East Africa  due to its hot sport in East